The Period Of Reconstruction During The Years Of 1865-1877

HBCUs were created during the period of Reconstruction in the years of 1865-1877. During this time period the Civil War was finally over and â€Å"Abraham Lincoln was now making plans for immediate equality for former slaves†. During Presidents Lincoln last speech he talked about â€Å"supporting enfranchisement of freedom†, in which he is basically talking about emancipating all African Americans; while Lincoln supported this idea Andrew Johnson opposed it. Andrew Johnson didn’t agree with this way of living with African Americans but there was something that he hated and despised even more and that was rich people.During the time period of reconstruction african americans wanted to do something better for themselves, they started off Andrew†¦show more content†¦No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.† Being as though this amendment was created and now applied to all people African Americans began developing many new skills that whites didn’t possess. â€Å"President Ulysses S. Grant supported Radical Reconstruction and enforced the protection of African Americans in the South through the use of the Force Acts passed by Congress. Grant suppressed the Ku Klux Klan, but was unable to resolve the escalating tensions inside the Republican party between the Carpetbaggers and the Scalawags (native whites in the South).† African Americans started off with making sure all African Americans had an education so that they may be able to work job and make their own money and succeed on their own without needing to wait for their â€Å"white masters† anymore. In August 1862, President Lincoln met with African-American leaders and â€Å" urged them to colonize some

Ebony And Ivy By Craig Steven Wilder Essay - 1122 Words

America’s higher education system has an interesting history. It has advanced substantially since it was established. Unfortunately, its beginnings were based on slavery and cultural genocide. Craig Steven Wilder’s book Ebony and Ivy gives insight into the intriguing beginning of America’s colleges. Wilder focuses mostly on the impact and treatment of both the Native Americans and African Americans within the beginnings of colonial universities, but within these statements, one can see how dramatically the American college system developed in these early years. The book has excellent reviews. In an article posted on December 1, 2014 the African American Review states, â€Å"Ebony and Ivy will change the way we think about knowledge-creation at America’s universities†¦Craig Wilder’s masterly work will stand the test of time and should be required reading for college students across America.† In a Washington Post article published in 2014, Carson Byrd says, â€Å"Ebony Ivy is a meticulously argued work and a valuable resource for multiple disciplines. It strongly connects slavery, science, and higher education to explain how racism is built into the foundation of our colleges and universities. A few of these connections are described below.† Craig Stephen Wilder is essentially the ideal person to write a book like Ebony and Ivy. Not only has he undergone extensive schooling from multiple colleges, but he has also taught within the college. His historical studies are expansive and well

Minds Are Open Only When Hearts Are Open Persuasive Essay Example For Students

Minds Are Open Only When Hearts Are Open Persuasive Essay Why do we need our heart open? The heart is actually the central ruler of your being. Even in Traditional Chinese Medicine it is known as the Emperor of the Body not the mind as predominantly thought in the western world. The heart when opened fully is where your inner guidance comes from (and divine guidance if you are open to receiving this). This doorway or bridge between the physical and spiritual worlds can provide profound assistance and healing within your being should houses to live more fully in an openhearted state. Below re meditation guidelines from my Opening Your Heart Series. These are tools and techniques to open and expand hearty more deeply in life so that you may move through life from the true centre of your being. Hope you find this of assistance and please feel free to share amongst your friends Basic Technique Finding somewhere to meditate is important and having your own sacred space is key to being able to stabilize and centre your being vivid ease. Having this spot permanently set up for meditation would also be advantageous -? and note that this is your spot only. Trying to meditate in someone elses energy after they have meditated may give you extra energy ODell With, rather than just slipping into your deep meditation with ease. So sitting comfortably (it is not recommended you lie down as you may fall asleep) and simply closing your eyes to go inward is the first step. Just rest there for a few moments, allowing the energy of the day to fall away with some gentle breaths, and consciously allowing your physical body to relax. Elf you feel guided you may call for support in your meditation from the Universe, such as invoking Angels and Archangels, Buddha, SST. Germane, God/des etc, or just simply the Universe itself to support you settling into your Receptivity Mode. Meditation helps you to calm and centre your being so that the Universe may give back to you what you have given out that day, We need to both have giving and receptive moments in our lives, not always giving (doing). Even a battery needs to both give and receive (positive and negative energies/ polarities) to function at full strength. Humans are no different. If one constantly gives (does) it is only a matter of time before they burnout or collapse*after your invocation, allow your awareness (consciousness) to gently slide down from your mind and into your heart space (the centre of your chest) where your point of light resides. Take your time with this as you may sense a little resistance from your mind/consciousness. If this occurs, simply honor and give thanks for it. It is important that this process is done with love and patience. You may visualize your awareness sliding down into your heart or simply feel it whatever works for you. Remember take your time. Once in contact with the flame (light) inside your chest, gently intend for this light to expand. There is no forcing With the mind for this to occur, you simply invite this inner flame within your chest to expand naturally in all directions around you (out the front and back of your heart, to your left and right, and above and below your heart -? basically 360 degrees around your heart), and allow it to expand out six feet in all directions slowly. Intent is all that is needed here. Your heart flame will expand naturally when you invite it to The mind does not need to force or push it to open. Gentle loving intent is more powerful here it Will respond_As your heart begins to expand one may incorporate any of the following techniques belonging Your Heart Series seepage I Of 4 C Carmella Raphael www_Carmella. Com Tell: 0424 044 130(depending on how they are guided that day) to deepen their heart opening experience. Breath ; With your heart flame gently expanding, simply allow your breath to lovingly support it to expand a little more on each gentle out-breath. Feel or visualize this occurring if this makes it easier for you. The more one breathes in a relaxed manner, the fuller and more expanded the heart. Unified Field The Unified Field is the energetic grid that connects everything in the universe, and it also has intelligence behind it. (For more information on this field, also known as the Quantum Field or Divine Matrix, see,read the following: What The Bleep Do We Know DVD, ; The Divine Matrix book by author Gregg Braded). Notice its name Unified Field it Unifies everything, To use the Unified Field in your meditation, simply call to the field to support the opening of your heart, and this field that permeates through your being will activate and transmit frequency into your heart charka (heart flame) immediately. Just allow yourself to receive with grace -?surrender, no forcing. With practice you will be able to feel its instant response to your requests and get very good with allowing yourself to receive the amazing frequency. Meditate with your awareness receiving from this field for as long as you feel guided; sipping on this field of love into your heart centre With your breath will deepen the experience also. Gratitude and Thanks ; Offering Gratitude and Thanks out to the universe for all that you are grateful for in life is another powerful way to expand your heart more deeply. The Benefits Of Music Education For Students In Schools And Colleges† EssayKnow that the more heart flagellants you transmit out to the universe, the more love and support that will come back to you the more you give, the more that returns. TIPS:Drop All Expectations meditation experiences will probably be deeper than others. It is important to drop all expectations and judgments about how your meditation experience is going to be that day (or even how it is going in that moment). Whatever occurs is perfect. It is important that one enters their meditation With no expectations of any outcomes, this way you can truly let go and honor that all is divine. What to do When One Experiences Difficulty with their Mindset, your mind may wander a little to start with and you may lovingly catch yourself thinking about the most unusual things during your meditations. This is perfectly normal and k, The honoring of your mind is important in any type of meditation. Getting angry at it, or Opening Your Heart Series package 3 of O Carmella Raphael move. Carmella. Com Tell: 0424 044 analyzing everything that occurs within your mind defeats the purpose of your meditation. It is important to thank your mind for its service to you (it plans things for you, operates your physical body systems for you etc). If your mind has wandered you simply guide your awareness back to the heart without judgment, The only way to still your mind over time is to lovingly persist with gentle meditation any type of meditation that works for you. Just know that more than likely (for most) the quieting of your mind wont occur within a week it normally takes some mime, but with gentle practice over time it Veil calm down. The only person that can calm your mind down is you. Have encountered many that wish for the fast food approach to slowing their mind and conscious thoughts down instantly and forever (once upon a time that was me! ). What governs your mind, your thought processes and consciousness is you. If you want a quiet mind, lovingly dedicate the time to assist it to get that way it just takes practice. An additional tip for when your heart is open is to transmit love from your open heart to your mind (who doesnt like to receive love . The love frequency will help slow down your mind also. What to do with your Visions or Pain Releasing from your Bodysuits often in meditation one may see, sense or feel things. Acknowledgement and giving thanks is key here, and then letting it go not analyzing it. If you start to analyses what you are seeing or feeling (especially if its a little bit of pain releasing from your physical body) then this will take you straight back into your beautiful mind, We are in meditation to connect more deeply to our hearts, so just honor the experience and come back to centre your heart. How Often Does One Meditate? You will need to dedicate some time (preferably each day) to experience your receptivity time). The length to time is up to you. Initially you may not be able to do it for an extended period of time, so try S, 10 or IS minutes etc, and build up to an hour if you can. Plan it in your day/diary observe your appointments and how much time within your day or week is you time _ Remember, we need to be relaxed and open (in a state of receptivity) to balance the flow of our giving and receiving throughout each day (sleeping does not really mount, although it is important for regeneration). Some days you may need more receiving time than others to recharge yourself. Acknowledge and honor how you are feeling each day, and pull back a little when you get into just doing all the times Happy Meditations! May you live a balanced life of playing (doing) and receiving (surrendering) to reach your full potential! Much love, Keeper of Angelic Geometries Master Healing Channel You will agree that life dishes out different kinds of challenges to different people. Everyone has to face difficulties, problems, setbacks at some point or the there. My life appeared to be one long-drawn out struggle. Like most people, every time faced yet another problem that sapped my patience and forbearance, I asked myself in despair: Why me? Why cant life ever be smooth and hassle-free? These questions seemed to have no answers. Being a religious person in the traditional sense of the word, concluded that God was unhappy with me. So I made every effort to please Him. But I got no response. Was I dialing a wrong number? As time passed, began to lose faith in someone who could not answer my questions and lead me to a more meaningful life. Solved to find the answer myself. To set my mind at rest, became a seeker. Life is a test In the course of my journey as a seeker, discovered the Creation Plan of God. According to the plan, life is a test and its many problems are part Of that test. Once the test comes to an end marked by death, we are either rewarded or punished, in accordance With our deeds. This world is like an examination hall where a student, with all the freedom to write whatever he wants, takes tests. It is only the result which determines his future. The student is made to confront pleasant and unpleasant situations -? a meant only to test him.

Napoleon Essays (3142 words) - French Emperors, House Of Bonaparte

Napoleon This essay will illustrate why Napoleon Bonaparte is regarded as one of the greatest military masterminds in the history of mankind. It will show the life of Napoleon from when he was a young boy, till he died in 1821. It will show how he deceived the French into giving him power, and how he used this power for his own interests. It will also reveal how he almost killed of an entire generation of French people, and once again prove that all good things must come to an end. Napoleon Bonaparte was born on August 15, 1769 in Ajaccio on the island of Corsica. This was only a few months after France had annexed the island. He had 7 brothers and sisters, and his father was a lawyer whose family stemmed from the Florentine nobility. His original nationality was Cursican-Italian. In 1779 Napoleon went to school at Brienne in France. There he took a great interest in history, especially in the lives of great ancient generals. Napoleon was often badly treated at Brienne because he was not as wealthy as his fellow classmates, and very short. He also did not speak French well, because Italian was spoken on Corsica where he grew up. He studied very hard so that he could do better then those who snubbed him. Napoleon attended the Ecole Military School in Paris in 1784 after receiving a scholarship. This is were he received his military training. He studied to be an artillery man and an officer. Napoleon finished his training and joined the French army when he was 16 years old. He was appointed to an artillery regiment , and commissioned as a lieutenant. Once again he was not well liked by his fellow officers because he was short, spoke with an Italian accent, and had little money. Napoleon spent little time with his regiment. He was more concerned with trying to free his home land of Corsica, witch had been taken with force by France. Soon after being commissioned his father died, and he was forced to provide for his family. Napoleon spent the next seven years reading the works of the philosophers, and educating himself in military matters by studying the campaigns of the great military leaders of the past. The French Revolution and the European war that followed broadened his sights and presented him with new opportunities. Napoleon was a supporter of the French Revolution . He went back and forth between Paris and Ajaccio, working for the Republic. Napoleon rose quickly through the ranks and became a captain in 1792. In 1793, Corsica revolted against the Republic, and Napoleon's family had to Flee to France. The Republic was in danger. France was at war with Austria, Prussia, England, Holland, and Spain. There was a revolt in western France, and there was a great need for good officers. At the age of 25, only one year after becoming captain, Napoleon performed so well that he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General. He was given command of the artillery at Toulon, and in December of that same year, the French forced the English out of Toulon. The commander in chief wrote: I Have no words to describe the merit of Bonaparte. Much science, as much intelligence, and too much bravery . (pg.7 Britannica Junior Encyclopedia #11 N-O). In August of 1794 Napoleon was arrested because he had been a supporter of Maximilien Rosbespierre. He was accused of treason. Although he was released his career seemed to be over. Then in October of 1795, the government was threatened with a revolt in Paris. Paul Barras, commander of the home forces, appointed Napoleon to defend the capital. With amazing swiftness Napoleon massed men and artillery at important places in Paris The attack of 30,000 national guards was driven back by his men. About 200 men were killed on each side, but he had saved France from civil war. (pg.7 Britannica Junior Encyclopedia #11 N-O). Napoleon saved the national convention from the Parisian mob and one year later at the age of 26, was rewarded with the position of commander in chief of the interior French army in Italy. When Napoleon accepted the position as the commander of

Peloponnesian War (Research Pap.) Essay Example

Peloponnesian War (Research Pap.) Essay DESTINED FOR WAR Jarod Bleibdrey, M. S. C. J January 20, 2013 As humans have evolved into vast, complex civilizations, a growing trend became notable to mankind, which was corruption. Speculating that Herodotus was the first true historian, and Thucydides was the second, then the Peloponnesian War would be the first form of government corruption in which war became inevitable. At this point, the war varies in perception of the two great alliances, and why the war was even fought. This essay will demonstrate how the Peloponnesian War stood as a great example of how superpowers become thrust into battle with one another, based upon corruption, vast difference in lifestyles, and the urging from smaller entities. Focus will be on how both Athens and Sparta’s political, social and diplomatic systems forced them into battle, but the battles themselves are of little concern in this essay. It was the â€Å"behind the scenes† events that can best explain and summarize the war. With the focus laying upon the causes of the war, it becomes important to remember that, what began as a great alliance, turned into the devastation of Greece and allowed the conquest of Philip of Macedonia to commence. Let us begin with the culture of Athens and Sparta, in an attempt to explain the vast contrast within the two city-states. The Spartans were obsessed with their military superiority, while the Athenians were interested in comfort and culture. Granted, the Athenian Navy was the strongest maritime force of the age, but more on this when we get to corruption. We will write a custom essay sample on Peloponnesian War (Research Pap.) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Peloponnesian War (Research Pap.) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Peloponnesian War (Research Pap.) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer The culture of Athens and Sparta was different to their core; everything from political to daily living conflicted, causing them to become competitive and distrustful of each other. The Spartan government was a very complex structure, which consisted of a dual monarchy, a warrior assembly (apella), a council of elders (gerousia) and the ephors. Herodotus claims that the two royal families of Sparta, which consisted of the Agiadai and Eurypontidai families, shared a common ancestry and could trace their lineage back to Herakles himself. Thus making the royal families by blood lines, which would be unable to be displaced, as opposed to that of military power, which could be overthrown. The kings were limited in their power as they only held command of the military. They had no influence in the laws which were left to the apella, gerousia and ephors. The apella was composed of every Spartan warrior who had reached the age of thirty. The apella’s primary functions included electing members for the gerousia, and the ephors. The apella held the ultimate power on matters of legislation and policy. The manner in which they voted was through a process of acclamation. Above the apella was the gerousia, which consisted of the two kings and twenty-eight members of Spartan warriors who had reached the age of sixty. The members elected into the gerousia served a life term, and could only be removed by the ephors. The true nature of the gerousia is unknown, but Herodotus wrote the gerousia could serve as a court to hear capital cases. The last political body of the Spartans and possibly the most important is that of the ephors. The five ephors were freely elected each year and attended much of the daily business of Sparta. Each month the kings and the ephors would exchange oaths, to which each pledged to uphold the position of the other. The ephors were the true controlling body of the Spartans, and thus resembled an oligarchy rule. It was this oligarchic rule of the ephors which insisted on the agoge, and placed Sparta into a militaristic focused city-state. The government in Athens followed a very different course than Sparta. Athenian citizens had the duty to vote or hold office. During the 6th century B. C. , Athens instituted a unique form of government in which the citizens had a direct say in the election of leaders. This early form of democracy was lead by Cleisthenes who created the Assembly, which comprised every citizen of Athens, and the Council of Five Hundred. This Council was comprised of fifty representatives from each of the Ten Tribes of Athens. This ensured each tribe had an equal say in the creation of laws and election of leaders. To ensure equality, the law was set that each member of the fifty from one of the ten tribes must not be related, nor hold the same occupation as any other member†¦to ensure there was no nepotism or common vestment. The Council of five hundred represented the legislative body of Athens. The executive power was placed within the Strategus, in which 10 generals were elected into office for one year terms, of these 10 strategi, one was elected as leader of the group and served as commander in chief. The judicial power of Athens was placed with the Areopagus, or the Supreme Court. This body was made up, primarily, of wealthy land owners who had been elected as archons (judges) in the past. This legislative, executive and judicial branched government is reminiscing to all modern day democracies. The major deviation from modern times being that Athens was a direct democracy, in which the citizens had to be present to vote. Each branch of the government was capable of vetoing one another, thus establishing a check and balance system. It was also customary to expel from the country, any speaker who became too powerful, in a process called ostracism. Every year the Council voted and one member would be ostracized (banished) for a period of ten years. Athens would vote by tossing colored rocks into a giant pot. This would be a very time consuming process as each topic would have orators speak on its behalf, and upon conclusion of the debate the voting would begin. The rocks were either white or black, where white stood for approve and black represented a denial. When choosing a person to ostracize, broken shards of pottery called ostrakon would be used with the intended person of exile name, etched onto the shard. After all votes were made, the numbers of each were tallied and the victor/ostracized proclaimed. This would take a long time and thus the Athenians prided themselves upon their dedication and attention to detail. This could have lead modern historians to view the Spartans as impulsive, and the Athenians as cautious. This has been a major misconception, as evident by the speech given by King Archidamus of Sparta, in which the Spartan King asked the council to exercise reason and caution before declaring war upon Athens. In turn, Pericles himself urged the Athenians to war against a dominant land army. Another difference between the two great city-states was their daily living and how it affected the trade in the two cities. The Athenian economy was heavily dependent upon foreign trade and because of their location on the Aegean Sea, maritime became life, and the sea meant life and livelihood. While trade was a necessity in Athens, Sparta relied upon their slave labor. The Helots (slaves) of Sparta were the driving force of Spartan agriculture, and allowed for Spartan’s excessive free time to translate into their dedication to the agoge. Since Sparta was cut off from the rest of Greece by two mountain ranges there was little trade being conducted, and thus alliances ere not a suitable strong point of Sparta. The Spartans rarely traveled from their city-state or allowed foreigners into it, thus making the only true vantage of joining Sparta, being that of their reputation in battle. With Sparta being an isolationist state, their perception would have been considered truth and fact, no matter what was written of them. One of the greatest differences between the Athenian and the Spartans regarded the ir attitude towards women. The role of women in the Greek city states of Athens and Sparta sheds light upon the acceptable values of their time. Spartan women had similar equality to their male counterpart (except for voting rights). Spartan women did little housework or sewing, as they relied upon their slave labor to conduct the daily chores. Due to the men being in the military and often away from home, the women had full authority over their households and were not forced into a life of only childbearing and housekeeping. Since Spartan women demonstrated a greater authoritative influence, the nation thrived and became a beacon of advancement, which would truly be a closer resemblance to modern civilizations than Athens. When Athenian girls came of age, their fathers offered them for marriage. Even as wives, they were required to stay indoors at all times, and their primary life tasks were child rearing, housework, and sewing, thus giving them no possibility to contribute to the Athenians development and culture. Sparta was uneasy, perpetually concentrating on war and the state of Sparta as a whole, while the Athenians focused their attention on comfort and found time to foster great thinkers in science, philosophy, literature†¦etc. With their differences in government, physical surroundings and views on women, Sparta and Athens represented the two very different ways a polis could have been back in the fifth century of Ancient Greece, and thus set them-selves on a crash course for supreme dominance, but war and battle would hold a true value to the Greeks, and so it was battles which lead to great alliances and enemies. In 478 BC, following the defeat of Xerxes invasion of Greece, Pausanias the Spartan led Hellenic forces against the Persians. He was an unpopular commander (who may have conspired with the Persians), and Sparta was eager to stop prosecuting the war. Sparta surrendered the leadership of the ongoing campaign to Athens, whom was eager to accept it. The Athenians now had their opportunity to take the reins and gain glory for themselves and Greece. The Delian League was inaugurated in 477 BC as an offensive and defensive alliance against Persia. The principal cities in the League were Athens, Chios, Samos, and Lesbos, but many of the principal islands and Ionian cities joined the league. Athens led the Delian League from the beginning, though at its founding the treasury was located on the island of Delos, and each state in the league had an equal vote. The assessment due from each state was assigned by Aristides the Just, leader of the Athenians; some members were assessed ships, others troops, others weapons, and others money. A council of all the cities met at Delos regularly, probably when bringing their assessment to the island. The turning point of the Delian league occurred in 461 BC, when Cimon was ostracized, and was succeeded in his influence by democrats like Ephialtes and Pericles. This signaled a complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the Spartans and instead allying with her enemies, Argos and Thessaly. Megara deserted the Peloponnesian league and allied herself with Athens, allowing construction of a double line of walls across the Isthmus of Corinth, protecting Athens from attack from that quarter. Around the same time they also constructed the Long Walls connecting their city to the Piraeus, its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land. The Athenian dominance within the Delian league was unmatched and unquestioned; this led to major changes within the Delian league and Athens. This progression and events will be discussed later within this essay. Reverting back, the Delian league was not the only alliance within Greece, as the Spartan lead Peloponnesian league also took root. In the second half of the 8th century B. C. , Sparta conquered Messenia, a state in the southwest of the Peloponnese. The land was turned over to Spartans and the Messenians turned into helots. The Messenians revolted in the middle of the next century, but after 17 years, the Spartans prevailed. By the time the Spartans were attacking the Arcadian city of Tegea, in the 6th century; her plans for the conquered citizens had changed. Tegea was made a dependent state obligated to furnish troops. Sparta soon created a confederacy of most of the other Peloponnesian states according them a similar arrangement: Sparta was in charge (known as the hegemon) and they would supply troops. Each had its own treaty and sent deputies to help in decision-making. This became known as the Peloponnesian League. Unlike that of the Delian League, the Peloponnesian league has no official start date, as each treaty was collected and approved over time and in that time the tag name of Peloponnesian league was given. This league was formed in recognition of Sparta’s dominance and no misconceptions of that were ever given. Each city-state that joined recognized Sparta’s military power as better than their own, and utilized the Peloponnesian League as a body guard against other city-states looking to invade them. Under the protection of the Spartans, their allies enjoyed a voice when they would have been forced to remain silent. Unlike Athens, the Spartans did not make their allies pay any tribute, but they did ensure they were governed by oligarchies (who would work in the interest of the Spartans). It is important to note: Argolis and Achaea were excluded from this league. Argos and Sparta had been at odds over the territory of Thyreatis. Their first battle had proved to be inconclusive, as the story goes, all but one on the Spartan side and two on the Argive side were killed. The Argives claimed the victory because more survived, and went back home. The Spartan stayed on the spot and therefore claimed he was the victor. The next time the two sides fought, the Argives clearly lost and forfeited the territory to Sparta. With two powerful alliances within Greece, one would conclude that war would have been inevitable; however, Sparta did not want to advance into war with Athens. Athens did not wish to advance into war with Sparta, but the corruption of Athens created a chain of events which spawned the forthcoming war. Thucydides expresses the cause of the Peloponnesian war to be that of Sparta’s jealousy and concern in Athens growing power. This is stated in Book 1 verse 23, when Thucydides states, â€Å"But the real reason for the war is, in my opinion, most likely to be disguised by such an argument. What made war inevitable was the growth of Athenian power and the fear which this caused in Sparta. † This view point is, in my opinion, very closed minded to the whole. The history of the Delian league leads to a better perspective in that the Delian League, particularly the Athenians, were willing to force cities to join or stay in the League. As an example to this, let us examine Carystus, a city on the southern tip of Euboea, who was forced to join the League by military force of the Athenians. The justification for this was that Carystus was enjoying the advantages of the League (protection from pirates and the Persians) without taking on any of the responsibilities. Furthermore, Carystus was a traditional base for Persian occupations. The Athenian politicians had to justify these acts to Athenian voters in order to get votes, and so they utilized oration to sway the public vantage of the situation. Next is Naxos, a member of the Delian League, which attempted to secede, and was enslaved; Naxos is believed to have been forced to tear down her walls, lost her fleet, and her vote in the Delian League. Thucydides tells us that this is how Athens control over the League grew. â€Å"Of all the causes of defection that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor. In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy. The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes. Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war. † -Thucydides At this point it is important to note that Thucydides is an Athenian General, and even though he offers a large writing to state he will approach his historical account with eyewitness testimony and scientific based method†¦he is bound to bias. Even the name most commonly known as the Peloponnesian War is biased upon the Athenian view point. In Spartan record, the war is referred to as the Athenian War. In ancient Greek writings the name of a battle is given to the opposing side, as to infer the enemy started the confrontation and modern translation is inclined to demonstrate this. If at this point one is resistant to this view point, I offer Thucydides own words when commenting on why Athens became the dictator of the Delian League, â€Å"We have done nothing surprising, nothing contrary to human nature, if we accepted leadership when it was offered and are now unwilling to give it up. -Thucydides With Thucydides now shown as biased record, the observation of what truly caused the Peloponnesian/Athenian war is to come to light. Athens and Sparta were the superpowers of ancient Greece, with only Corinth possessing the ability to be of notable mention in matching these powers. In 454 BC, Athens moved the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia. However, Plutarch indicates that many of Pericles rivals viewed the transfer as Athens way to utilize the leagues monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects. They also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons, to only accepting money. The new treasury established in Athens was used for many purposes, not all relating to the defense of members of the league. It was from tribute paid to the league that Athenians built the Acropolis and the Parthenon, as well as many other non-defense related expenditures. It was during this time, Donald Kagan expresses, and the Athenian Empire arose, as the technical definition of empire is a group of cities paying taxes to a central, dominant city, while keeping local governments intact. This is what began to occur within the Delian League. It was turning from an alliance to an empire†¦against the wishes of the league. With Athens now being the most powerful of the Delian league, the smaller city-states were obliged to remain†¦or join Sparta. The smaller city-states are, in my opinion, the true cause of the Peloponnesian War, as they began to bounce from an alliance with Athens to Sparta and vice versa. If Athens and Sparta are to be viewed as two boulders, connected by a single chain (which represents the smaller city states), as the chain pulls from one to the other†¦the boulders become destined to collide. This situation is reminiscing to England v. France, U. S. A. v. Russia (Cold War) and multiple other wars since the Peloponnesian War. Both sides had many opportunities for diplomacy to take effect, and the outcomes pushed force into the only method of resolution. Diplomacy in Sparta consisted of the allies of the Peloponnese to take up the forum and express their grievances. Corinth laid the foundation and even though the Spartan king attempted to refrain from entering into a war with Athens, the council voted to declare war upon Athens for their many violations of the peace treaty. With that, an ultimatum was sent to Athens; The Spartan assembly decreed that Athens should abandon the siege of Potidaea and should give Aegina her independence, but the chief point was that war could be avoided if Athens would revoke the Megarian decree which excluded the Megarians from all ports n the Athenian Empire and from the market in Attica itself. The Athenians focused upon the latter of the demands, (seeing as they would not yield to the first), and in this Pericles gives a riveting speech to the assembly stating that giving in to any of Sparta’s demands would be an act of submissiveness and that would, in turn, lead to Sparta dictating further A thenian actions. The council voted for war and thus the Athenian war began. This was the final attempt at diplomacy before the two juggernauts squared off against each other. Diplomacy, to this point, has kept the giants in their respective corners, but the inferior city-states pushed them into battle. The Spartans knew of their inferiorities on the ocean, and of their perpetual tether to their homeland†¦and in so, they were limited. The Athenians relied upon their superior numbers, finances, navy and arrogance to see them through as victors. On paper the battle was desperately in the Athenians favor, but Sparta was breed for war, and Athens had turned friends into enemies. Finally, it is important to remember Athens set out with great intention, as the Delian League was a symbol of unity and cohesive teamwork. With that great power, Athens became dependent upon the tributes and became a superpower of monumental stature. Athens then began punishing any of those that wished or attempted to defect from the Delian league. It is now apparent why the Delian league is synonymous with the Athenian Empire, and proof that power leads to corruption. About now, one remembers that Sparta won this conflict, (with the aid of the Persians), and became the supreme ruler of all Greece. True to the Peloponnesian league, Sparta instituted an oligarchy within the borders of Athens, and that lasted for thirty years. It was not corruption that led to the fall of the Athenian oligarchy; it was the people and their customization to democracy. The oligarchy was overthrown and democracy was instilled back into the polis. This demonstrates that not all subjective groups with power will abuse it, but when power is free to be grasped†¦beware. The story continues to demonstrate how Athens and Sparta were so devastated by fighting each other, that Philip of Macedonia was able to sweep in and conquer all of Greece. This set up the perfect opportunity for Alexander the Great, (Philips son) to conquer the known world and spread the greatness of Greece to all corners. Without the Peloponnesian War, Philip would probably not been able to conquer and the Hellenistic theology would have been confined. When viewing epic battles between the boulders of humanity, it is essential to remember; the outcome is necessary for the future line of events to occur. BIBLIOGRAPHY * Donald Kagan, 2003, The Peloponesian War, Publisher: Penguin Group (U. S. A) * Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) * Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans. J. M. Moore (Berkeley California: University of California Press, 1975) * Paul Cartledge, 2002, The Spartans, Publisher: Vintage Publishing (New York) * Nic Fields, 2007, Thermopylae 480 BC: Last Stand of the 300, Publisher: Osprey Publishing (Oxford UK) * Karolos Papoulias, 2006, Athens-Sparta, Publisher: Alexander S. Onassis Public Benefit Foundation (U. S. A. ) * D. M. Macdowell, 1986, Spartan Law, Publisher: Penguin Group (Edinburgh Scot. ) * C. A. Hignett, 1952, History of the Athenian Constitution to the end of the fifth century B. C. Publisher: University of Oxford press (Oxford) * Yannis Lolos, 2006, The history of Athens from the eighth to the late fifth century B. C. , Publisher: Alexander S. Onassis Public Benefit Foundation (U. S. A) * Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London: Penguin Group publishing, 2003) [ 1 ]. Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London: Penguin Group publishing, 2003) Vers e 6. 52 [ 2 ]. Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London: Penguin Group publishing, 2003) Verse 5. 6-60 [ 3 ]. Herodotus, The Histories,ed. John Marincola, trans. Aubrey De Selincourt (London: Penguin Group publishing, 2003) Verse 5. 40 [ 4 ]. Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans. J. M. Moore (Berkeley California: University of California Press, 1975) Verse 15. 7 of Xenophon â€Å"The Politeia of the Spartans† [ 5 ]. Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans. J. M. Moore (Berkeley California: University of California Press, 1975) taken from Aristotle’s The Constitution of Athens [ 6 ]. Aristotle, Xenophon, Aristotle and Xenophon on Democracy and Oligarchy, trans. J. M. Moore (Berkeley California: University of California Press, 1975) taken from Aristotle’s The Constitution of Athens [ 7 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 79-85 [ 8 ]. Herodotus hints to this, but quickly states the facts are not there for condemning [ 9 ]. Kagan, 2003, The Peloponnesian War, Published by Penguin Group (U. S. A. ) [ 10 ]. Lolos, The history of Athens from the eighth to the late fifth century B. C. , 2006, Publisher: Alexander S. Onassis Public Benefit Foundation (U. S. A) [ 11 ]. Hegemon utilized by Thucydides to describe this relationship [ 12 ]. Cartledge, The Spartans, 2003, Publisher: Vintage Books (U. S. A) [ 13 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 19 [ 14 ]. Fields, Thermopylae 480 B. C. , 2007, Publisher: Osprey Publishing (U. S. A) [ 15 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 23 [ 16 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 99 [ 17 ]. Cartledge, The Spartans, 2003, Publisher: Vintage Books (U. S. A) pg. 181 [ 18 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 76 [ 19 ]. Kagan, 2003, The Peloponnesian War, Published by Penguin Group (U. S. A. ) [ 20 ]. Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, trans. Rex Warner (London: Penguin Group Publishing, 1972) Verse 1. 39 [ 21 ]. I utilize the term Athenian war, because it was the Athenians who ultimately decided to engage in battle, as the Spartans were trying to appease their allies and avoid war as well.

A Quick Look at Castiglione and Cellini Life

A Quick Look at Castiglione and Cellini Life Lawrence in his book Culture and Values A Survey of the Humanities, stated that “Early sixteenth-century Renaissance culture was a study in contrasts. The period not only marked a time when some of the most refined artistic accomplishments were achieved, it was also a period of great social upheaval”(332). In fact, there were many outstanding artists at that time, among them were Castiglione known for their philosophy of life and Cellini the first artist who really lived his own life.Castiglione was a well-rounded man with chivalry spirit as the author described “He was a versatile man a person of profound leaning, equipped with physical and martial skills, and possessed of a noble and refined demeanor”(332). The fact that he well-educated and aristocratic, he worked at the Urbino court from 1504 to 1506 and decided to write The Courtier that took him dozen years. According to the book he wrote, a true gentlemen should have brain and have adequate knowledge about his tory but the most important thing is do not rely in Christian.Elizabeth Cooke, daughter of Anthony Cooke, tutor ...

Public goods Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Public goods - Essay Example The democrats who urge the government to ensure that there is equality in education for the benefit of the future economy support this strategy (Kaul, 1999, p.23). The provision of education as a public good has resulted to the increment of taxes, since the government has to increase taxes to earn more revenue that finances the public schools. The increment in taxes as the government tries to provide more resources in the education sector is criticized since the quality of education available is depreciating annually. The critics argue that education is a social good or a quasi-public good thus it is not the sole responsibility of the government to provide it (Kaul, 2003, p.17). This essay tries to identify the best way to offer education. It reflects on the negative constriction of offering education as a public good while giving other positive ways of ensuring quality education, lower expenditures or taxes and higher revenue to the government. The major negative effect of education as a public good is that the government expenditure increases and taxes increases since the government uses public finance to either offer strict free education as is the case in U.S. elementary and high school education or when it offers subsidiaries or vouchers to finance education (Kaul, 2003, p.56). This affects all the citizens as huge sums of public finance are allocated for education in the expenses of other important issues that are more important to the society for instance health sector may receive inadequate funds (United States Congressional Serial Set, 2011). The essence that education is not a pure public good proves that consumption of education would not decline even when offered as a private good since the parents know the importance of education and would work harder to ensure their kids achieve education from private schools. The essence of education as a public good faces the same problems as other public good in the sense